Instructional design models

1. Introduction

Instructional design is based on a planned and systematic approach to the creation of teaching materials and learning experiences. In order to facilitate this process and make it more effective, various instructional design models have been developed to serve as guidelines for teachers and designers in their work. The models do not offer a universal solution, but rather represent structures and steps that can be adapted to a specific context, type of learners and learning objectives. Their role is to ensure clarity, consistency and quality in all phases of the process – from needs analysis, through content design and development, to implementation and evaluation.

By using instructional design models, teachers and designers can avoid a haphazard approach and ensure that all elements of instruction are connected into a logical and coherent whole. In modern higher education, and especially in the digital environment, these models gain added value because they help align pedagogical goals with technological capabilities.

In this activity, the following instructional design models will be briefly introduced:

• ADDIE
• SAM
• TPACK
• SAMR.

2. Instructions for the task

Your task is to explore several proposed models of instructional design and analyze their main features. Pay attention to how each model defines the stages of the process, what is the role of the teacher, how much emphasis is placed on needs analysis and evaluation, and how flexible the model is in a digital environment.

After reviewing the models, critically assess which one would be most appropriate for your educational context (e.g. higher education, online teaching, vocational training, lifelong learning). Justify your decision by comparing the advantages and limitations of the selected model compared to others.

You can rely on scientific sources, professional literature and practical examples to prepare your analysis. You will need to use the results of the analysis in the activities that follow.

3. ADDIE model

ADDIE model

One of the best-known and most used models of instructional design is ADDIE (Analyse, Design, Develop, Implement, Evaluate), which provides a clear framework for structured planning and implementation of the educational process during the five stated phases: analysis, design, development, application and evaluation. The questions mentioned after each phase refer to what the instructional designer assisting the teacher / subject matter expert should pay particular attention to. If the teacher is also an instructional designer, he will solve some of these questions through internal analysis.

In the first phase, analysis, the educational problem is defined, the characteristics of the target group are identified (prior knowledge, competencies, motivation, technical readiness), the objectives are established and the contextual conditions of learning are specified. In higher education, this phase includes, for example, an analysis of the study program and the expected outcomes of the qualification, but also an analysis of the conditions of teaching (number of students, possibility of using e-learning, availability of resources, etc.).

Questions that need to be asked during this phase are usually:

• What are the learning objectives?
• What is the audience?
• What are their needs?
• Are there any limitations in learning?
• What is the learning environment like?
• What tools and resources are available?
• What is the time frame?.

The design phase, in which the teaching content is structured, didactic strategies are determined, the sequence of activities is planned, and the form of assessment is defined. This phase also determines the types of teaching media and technologies that will be used, paying attention to their didactic function. It is crucial that the design is aligned with the learning outcomes, as well as the program outcomes.

During this phase it is necessary to:

• interview subject experts (experts whose expertise covers the content of the future e-college, if you are both an expert and the author of the e-college, do the analysis yourself) in order to get detailed information and insights into the content
• determine the appropriate media and technological tools for students to use
• determine how collaborative and interactive the content should be
• determine the knowledge and skills that students should develop after each assignment.

Development phase refers to the creation of actual teaching materials: lectures, scripts, visuals, quizzes, case studies, and other resources. In digital education, this includes the creation of interactive elements, videos, and templates for independent work, as well as the development of tests and evaluation rubrics. Pilot testing of individual elements is often carried out during this phase.

Questions that need to be asked during this phase are usually:

• Is the creation/development of digital teaching materials timely in order to meet the target deadlines?
• Does any content or resources need to be redesigned or developed?
• Are there any incompatibilities (related to tools and digital content)?
• Are some digital tools or activities unusable?.

Implementation is the phase in which the designed teaching materials and activities are applied in a real educational situation. This could be the implementation of a course in the next semester or a workshop for teachers or students. During implementation, the instructional designer or teacher monitors how what has been planned works in real conditions and records user reactions and technical and pedagogical challenges encountered by the students or teacher.

If it is a project where the instructional designer helps teachers in the development of e-colleges, at this stage it is necessary:

• begin training instructors/teachers on learning outcomes, recommended delivery methods, and appropriate use of tools and technology
• ensure that the leader of the e-course/e-college has all the materials and tools the participants need to complete the necessary learning activities
• establish a way to document student performance during the e-course
• create a backup plan for lessons and activities if the instructor encounters technical difficulties while delivering the e-course/e-college.

The final phase, assessment, includes a dual aspect: formative evaluation, which is carried out during all previous phases to improve the material and approach, and summative evaluation, which is carried out after implementation to determine the effectiveness of the program. Evaluation can be carried out, for example, by: student surveys, learning analytics, etc.

Questions at this stage usually concern how to improve an already conducted e-course/e-college for the next year of execution:

• Have the problems been solved and the learning objectives achieved?
• How receptive were the participants to the activities and materials?
• Are changes needed in the scope and sequence of e-course content?
• Are there areas that could be improved or made more efficient?.

4. SAM model

5. SAMR model

SAMR model

The SAMR model was developed in 2010 by Ruben Puentedura and consists of four levels of online learning, roughly ordered according to their transformative power. SAMR is a reflection tool that can help teachers think about how the integration of digital technology supports learning in specific educational contexts/situations and activities. The abbreviation SAMR stands for substitution, augmentation, modification and redefinition.

The individual phases of the model are described below.

In the substitution phase, technology is used to solve a task that could equally well be done without the use of technology, for example, students solve a printed task on paper or use a digital source such as a book.

In the augmentation phase, technology is used for a task that would otherwise take much longer or be more difficult (complex) if students were to complete it without the use of technology, e.g. students complete an online exam with closed questions that are automatically graded and scored by a distance learning system. Students edit text on a computer, adding images, sound or video, and the like.

The phases of substitution and augmentation represent the foundation of the transformation of the educational process, which is actually carried out in the remaining two phases: modification and redefinition.

In the modification phase, technology provides students with new learning opportunities, for example, after writing a seminar, students can record it as a short video and share it with their colleagues. They can also create an infographic or poster with interactive elements (such as video, audio, and links to other resources).

In the redefinition phase, technology provides the possibility of creating new types of tasks that would be much more difficult to achieve or impossible without the use of technology, such as recording and producing an interactive video on a topic, creating a digital book, an interactive timeline with plenty of multimedia content and links to external content for each of the points/events, and interactive maps with data collected during field research and the like.

6. TPACK model

What is TPACK?

TPACK stands for Technological Pedagogical Content Knowledge. At the heart of the TPACK framework is TPACK knowledge, an integrated understanding of how to teach specific content using appropriate pedagogical strategies supported by appropriate technology. The model is based on the assumption that quality teaching with technology requires a focused overlap of three knowledge areas (CK, PK and TK, whose additional intersections encompass new sub-areas):

1. Content Knowledge (CK) is a teacher's knowledge of the subject matter to be learned or taught. It includes knowledge of concepts and theories, ideas, organizational frameworks, and evidence, as well as established practices and approaches for developing such knowledge.
2. Pedagogical Knowledge (PK) is a teacher's knowledge of the processes, practices, or methods of learning and teaching. It encompasses, among other things, the overall purpose of education and its values and goals, and refers to understanding the learning process, classroom management skills, lesson planning, and assessment.
3. Technological Knowledge (TK) is knowledge about certain ways of thinking and working with technology, tools and resources. Working with technology can be applied to all technological tools and resources and includes a broad enough understanding of information technology to be productively applied at work and in everyday life, recognizing when information technology can help or hinder goal achievement and constantly adapting to information technology changes/developments.
4. Pedagogical Content Knowledge (PCK) is based on Shulman's idea of pedagogical knowledge applicable to the teaching of specific content. The emphasis is on the transformation of the teaching topic that occurs during its interpretation, finding different ways of interpreting it, and adapting instructional materials to alternative concepts and prior knowledge. It covers the very core of the work of teaching, learning, curriculum, assessment, and reporting.
5. Technological Content Knowledge (TCK) is the understanding of how technology and content influence and constrain each other. Teachers must master more than the subject matter they teach. They must also have a deep understanding of how the subject matter (or the kinds of representations that can be constructed) is transformed by the application of particular technologies. Teachers need to understand which specific technologies are best suited to address subject matter learning in their domains and how content dictates or even changes technology, or vice versa.
6. Technological Pedagogical Knowledge (TPK) is an understanding of how teaching and learning can change when certain technologies are used in a specific way. This includes knowing the pedagogical advantages and limitations of a range of technological tools related to the discipline and developing an appropriate pedagogical design and strategy.
7. Technological Pedagogical Content Knowledge (TPACK) is a combined form of knowledge that contains all three main components (content, pedagogy, and technology). It is the foundation of effective teaching with technology and requires an understanding of the concepts of technology application, pedagogical techniques that use technology in constructive ways to teach material, knowledge of what makes certain concepts difficult or easy to learn, and how technology can help correct some of the problems that students (learners) face. It also requires knowledge of students' (learners') prior knowledge and theories of epistemology and knowledge of how technologies can be used.

Why is TPACK important?
The model helps teachers see technology not as an add-on to teaching, but as an active component of didactic reflection. By applying the TPACK framework, teachers reflect on these questions:

• What is the goal of teaching?
• What content is key to understanding?
• Which method best suits the goals and content?
• What digital tools can enhance the learning experience?.

In this way, technology becomes a means, not an end, and supports learning in a meaningful and effective way.

Applying the TPACK framework in lesson planning
When planning levels of technology integration, TPACK can be used as a tool for analysis and reflection:

• low level of integration: technology is used passively for content presentation
• medium level of integration: technology enables interaction and collaboration
• high level of integration: technology is inseparable from the teaching process and enables personalized, creative and problem-based learning.

TPACK also helps teachers develop digital competencies because it highlights not only the technical, but also the pedagogical function of technology.

TPACK and teacher professional development
Developing TPACK competencies does not happen automatically. It is necessary to include the TPACK framework in teacher education and professional development, encourage teamwork and interdisciplinary projects, use reflective practice, i.e. analyze one's own teaching scenarios with the TPACK model, and apply digital pedagogy in designing e-courses and OER content in order for a teacher to fully acquire these competencies.

The TPACK framework provides a systematic approach to understanding and integrating technology into the educational process. Rather than using technology haphazardly or out of a need to modernize or because it's "modern," TPACK directs us toward thoughtful and contextualized application. Such an approach not only improves teaching, but also strengthens the role of the teacher as a pedagogical expert in the digital age.

7. Bibliography

Hoić Božić, N. i Holenko Dlab, M. (2021). Uvod u e-učenje: obrazovni izazovi digitalnog doba. Rijeka: Sveučilište u Rijeci, Odjel za informatiku.

Hamilton, E., Rosenberg, J. i Akcaoglu, M. (2016). The Substitution Augmentation Modification Redefinition (SAMR) Model: a Critical Review and Suggestions for its Use. TechTrends. 60. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11528-016-0091-y.

Sam (successive approximation model). ELM Learning. (2024). https://elmlearning.com/hub/instructional-design/sam-successive-approximation-model/.

Tomić, V. (2025). Planiranje i provedba hibridne nastave. CARNET.

ELM learning. SAM (Successive Approximation Model) pristup e-učenju

E-learning Designer's Academy. Što je to SAM model instrukcijskog dizajna?

Schmidt, D. A., Baran, E., Thompson, A. D., Mishra, P., Koehler, M. J. & Shin, T. S. (2009). Technological Pedagogical Content Knowledge (TPACK): The Development and Validation of an Assessment Instrument for Preservice Teachers. Journal of Research on Technology in Education, 42(2), 123–149. https://doi.org/10.1080/15391523.2009.10782544.

University of Washington, ADDIE model

Digital learning institute, Proces ADDIE dizajna učenja za instrukcijske dizajnere

Instructional design, ADDIE model

Nearpodblog  TPACK model objašnjen primjerima iz učionice

Digital technologies hub, TPACK model

TPACK izvori

Edutopia, Moćni model za razumijevanje dobre integracije tehnologije

Twitterova družina, Model SAMR

Bouchrika, I. (n.d.). How to use SAMR model in designing instruction for 2025 (an Edtech Integration Guide)