Types of Accommodations in the Instructional Process

1. Individualized Study Conditions

Higher education institutions regulate the possibilities for ensuring accessibility for students with disabilities through internal rulebooks (statutes/regulations). The Rulebook on Studying in Undergraduate and Graduate Programmes at the University of Zagreb, Article 17, points 7 and 11 (Rulebook, 2024), specifies the following possible adaptations for students with disabilities:

• (7) Individualised study conditions include the adaptation of the instructional process and examination procedures without compromising academic standards and in accordance with the established learning outcomes, which are the same for all students.
• (10) Individualised study conditions for a student with a disability may include: extended time for written exams and colloquia, graphic adaptation of instructional materials (enlarged letters and line spacing, etc.), digitalised literature, support from another person (peer support, sign language interpreter, etc.), use of assistive technology, other adaptations in accordance with the general act of the constituent unit (Faculty/Academy) or the University.

2. Universal Design for Learning (UDL) and Instruction (UDI)

Universal Design for Learning (UDL) and Universal Design for Instruction (UDI) are approaches that aim to meet the needs and abilities of all students and remove barriers in the learning and teaching process. These approaches create a flexible learning environment where information is presented in multiple ways, students engage in learning through various methods, and are given different opportunities to demonstrate their understanding.

Universal Design for Learning is based on three principles:

• Multiple Means of Engagement
• Multiple Means of Representation
• Multiple Means of Action and Expression

In this chapter, Multiple Means of Representation of content, as well as spatial and temporal adaptations (accommodations), will be discussed. These adaptations are based on Universal Design for Learning and can benefit all students. Unless otherwise specified, examples are taken and adapted from the website:  Centre for Teaching and Learning, University of Oxford.

3. Accessibility of Textual Content

It is recommended that textual materials include the following:

• A sans-serif font (e.g., Arial or Verdana).
• A font size of at least 12 to 14 points.
• 1.5 line spacing.
• Left alignment.
• Use bold text for emphasis instead of italics or underlining, as these can be difficult to read.
• Use flexible formats such as Microsoft Word, Open Document Text (ODT), accessible PDFs, and HTML, so that students can adjust the appearance, size, and font of electronic documents.
• To create an accessible PDF in Microsoft Office, use the "Save As" option instead of"Print to PDF": Save As > Options, ensuring that the boxes for "Document structure tags for accessibility" and "Create bookmarks using headings" are checked.
• When linking to external sources, use descriptive text for links instead of phrases like "click here", for example, "Find resources by searching the University Library catalogue." This allows students who use assistive technology such as screen readers to follow the link.
• Use strong contrast between the text and the background, for example, dark text on a pastel or cream background (not white). Avoid using red and green in contrast, as people with colour blindness may find it difficult to distinguish these colours.
• Ensure that colours are not the only way to convey information: use headings to help students follow the structure of the content.

You can download an example of accessible text at: Example of accessible text

4. Structuring Textual Documents

• Documents must have a clear structure using formatting tools such as headings, bullet points, and numbering, instead of hyphens or spaces to indicate structure.
• Headings should not be designated solely by font style or size; instead, use Word Styles (Heading 1, Heading 2, etc.), which can be recognised and navigated by screen readers.
• Include a header and footer with key information, such as the author, course, and lesson title, version, and date.
• Pages should be numbered.
• Ensure the accessibility of images, graphs, diagrams, and illustrations by adding descriptions using the "alternative text" feature. This ensures that all students, including those using assistive technology such as screen readers, can access the information. This function is available in Word, PDF, and HTML.
• To make images accessible to screen readers, place them in line with the text.

5. Presenting Data Using Tables

When presenting data, avoid using tables solely for formatting purposes.

If data must be displayed in a tabular format, use the dedicated table function instead of formatting with spaces or tabs. This enables assistive technology to recognise the format.

When a table is used to display data, include column headers (available in the "Table Tools" section) to identify the information needed to read the cells.

6. Accessibility of Presentations

• Use a sans-serif font (such as Arial or Verdana) with a size of 20–28 points for main body text and 30–44 points for headings. Avoid italics, as they can be difficult to read.
• Reduce the amount of text on each slide and use a simple layout, for example, by using bullet points.
• Use the Layout option in PowerPoint instead of adding text boxes to a blank slide, as this ensures screen readers can recognise the titles.
• Each slide should have a unique title and a number to enable students to navigate using assistive technology.
• When linking to external sources, use descriptive text such as "Find resources by searching the University Library catalogue," which then leads to the specified resource. This allows students who use assistive technology, such as screen readers, to follow the link.
• Use strong contrast between text and background, for example, dark text on a pastel or cream background (not white). Avoid red and green contrasts, as people with colour blindness may find it difficult to distinguish these colours.
• Contrast can be achieved in two ways: by lightness and by colour. The strongest contrast based on lightness is between black and white. The strongest colour contrast is achieved by using complementary colours (red–green, yellow–blue).
• Contrast achieved by colour cannot be distinguished by people who are colour blind, so contrast on the screen should be achieved by lightness, not by colour.
• The best way to reduce glare is to use dark colours for the background (less light) and light colours for the text. A good combination is white text on a dark blue background (Vulić Prtorić et al., 2012).
• Ensure that colours are not the only way to convey information; use headings to help students follow the structure of the content.

Audiovisual Content
When using audiovisual content, provide captions or transcripts.

Download an example of an accessible presentation at:  Example of an accessible presentation. 

7. Sharing Materials in Advance

It is good practice to make course materials available online 24 hours before the start of class.

This allows students who use assistive technology, as well as others, time to access the materials and prepare. For a student with dyslexia or a deaf student, it can be crucial to receive lists of new terms that will be used before the lecture.

8. Checking Material Accessibility

The accessibility of textual materials can be checked using the Accessibility Checker in Microsoft Office 365. Further details are available in the system's accessibility checking rules Microsoft Office.

9. Adaptation of the Environment

It is necessary to adapt the environment because students with chronic illnesses may need to stand or change their sitting position during lectures. There may also be difficulties in meeting course requirements due to treatment required by the worsening of a health condition (Jokić-Begić et al., 2015).

Visually impaired students should be allowed to sit close to the surface onto which content is projected, and lighting should be adjusted.

10. Time Adjustment

The time needed to complete a task depends on the individual capabilities of the student.

It is recommended to extend the time by half of the period allotted for other students. 

Some students require additional time even for writing essays, term papers, creating drafts and similar assignments. Students must be informed of the deadlines in advance (Kiš Glavaš, 2012).

11. Accommodations in the Assessment Process

Formative assessment is essential for successful learning. Many students with specific learning difficulties benefit from multiple modes of assessment. Feedback on their work is important. For exams and other forms of summative assessment, it is vital that students with disabilities have the opportunity to experience exam conditions in advance. This is especially important for all the students who must use assistive technology. Students should never use any tool for the first time under the stressful conditions of an examination. Therefore, they should be encouraged to use all necessary technologies during their learning.

Over-reliance on one or a limited number of assessment methods restricts students' opportunities to demonstrate the full extent of their knowledge. For example, students may be required to complete assignments such as essays, tasks, or practical exercises under supervised conditions, often at the end of a course or program. However, a range of other assessment tasks, conditions, and timings can promote an inclusive mode of assessment within a course or program, and can assess the same or similar skills and understanding.

Clear assessment criteria for different tasks are an important element of quality assessment. Assessment criteria clarify expectations for submitted work to both assessors and students, depending on the time and conditions under which they are completed.

Accommodations during examinations for students with mental health difficulties may relate to factors such as room size (smaller room, fewer students), specific student placement within the space (closer to the exit, at the edge of a row or near a window), individual settings (being in a room with five or fewer students), temporal adjustments (breaks, extended exam time) and computer use (due to tremor caused by anxiety) (Jokić Begić et al., 2015).

Task: Look at the video presentation, Adjusting to university with autism and anxiety about the experiences of a student with autism and his recommendations for support. Subtitles and a transcript are available for the video presentation.

12. Questions for Self-Assessment and Reflection

1. List at least four ways to provide accommodation in the instructional process.
2. List at least four elements of accessible textual materials.

13. References

Accessible teaching and learning resources (n.d.)

Jokić-Begić, N., Jureša, V., Živčić Bećirević, I., Čuržik, D., Drusany, D., & Musil, V. (2015). Smjernice postupanja za studente sa psihičkim smetnjama i kroničnim bolestima u okviru akademskog okruženja / Guidelines for supporting students with mental health difficulties and chronic illnesses in the academic environment. University of Zagreb

Kiš-Glavaš, L. (2012). Univerzalni dizajn za učenje i akademski standardi/Universal Design for Learning and Academic Standards. In A. Vulić-Prtorić, V. Kranželić, A. Fajdetić (Eds.) Teaching Delivery and Learning Outcomes. University of Zagreb. pp. 17–42.

Regulations on Undergraduate and Graduate Studies at the University of Zagreb / Pravilnik o studiranju na prijediplomskim i diplomskim studijima Sveučilišta u Zagrebu (2024).

Studying with an Autism Spectrum Disorder.

Vulić-Prtorić, A., Fajdetić, A., Lončar-Vicković, S., Ćirić, J., Czerny, S., Barić, A., & Romstein, K. (2012). Oblici, metode i tehnike izvođenja nastave / Forms, Methods, and Techniques of Instruction Delivery. In A. Vulić-Prtorić, V. Kranželić, A. Fajdetić (Eds.) Teaching Delivery and Learning Outcomes. University of Zagreb. pp. 77–88.